The Romanesque Gaze
Symbol, Style and the Sacred Face in the 11th century
Romanesque art is not meant to “reflect” the viewer
Why do these faces feel at once so strange and so compelling? However abstract or otherworldly they appear, we are caught by them; their gaze captures ours. They seem to defy our ideas about what sacred art is for; they do not invite us into a personal, interior or intimate moment. We feel silenced when looking, as if we are being in turn looked at, from an unimaginable distance.
We call it “Romanesque” today but this is a much later academic nomenclature; a term from academics of the early 19th century, whose attention was always trained on Imperial Rome. They saw the architecture, the barrel vaults, rounded arches and solid stone construction, as a “revival” of Roman imperial greatness. But this label obscures the deeper and more immediate roots of the style in monastic liturgy, Christian cosmology and the symbolic imagination of the Middle Ages - all greatly despised by secularised 19th century “men of reason”.
Much later, post-Christian scholars may have named it “Romanesque” but at the time it wasn’t a conscious revival of Classical Antiquity; medieval men would probably have thought that ancient, Classical pagan Rome deserved its fate for murdering the saints. The churches, paintings and sculptures of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were shaped by the practical and spiritual needs of a new Western Christian society, defined by Benedictine monasticism, growing pilgrimage networks and theology expressed in symbolic meaning rather than naturalistic representation. When we talk about early medieval western sacred art, we’re talking about Romanesque.
In the Romanesque, the human faces and figures of Christ, the Virgin, the saints and angels were not painted to resemble any specific individual. Far from it. These are faces abstracted sometimes almost out of recognition into stylised, linear geometric forms intended to express visually the eternal mysteries. In manuscripts, frescoes and sculpture, the face served as a symbol: condensed signs of a humanity transfigured by divine life.
In today’s post for all subscribers, we explore the strange, stylised faces of Romanesque art, that don’t look at us so much as through us. What do these mask-like expressions mean? Why are they so compelling, and what kind of world made them?
New here? Start here.
The Sacred Images Project is a growing reference library dedicated to the history, theology and practice of Christian sacred art. Through essays, guided Reading Rooms, videos and other resources, we aim to recover the visual language that shaped Christian civilisation for more than a thousand years and make it accessible to artists, students and anyone who wants to understand it.
If you’ve only just discovered the project through Google, a recommendation, or a shared article, click the Start Here button below to get the big picture and find the best place to begin.
The Reading Rooms are open - Foundations
One of the biggest projects we’ve undertaken this year is reorganising the Sacred Images Project archive into subject-based Reading Rooms. Instead of disappearing into a chronological archive of more than 300 essays, articles are being grouped and cross-linked by topic, so each Reading Room becomes a complete guide to a particular subject.
If you’re new to the subject, the Foundations Reading Room brings together the essential articles that explain what sacred art is and why it’s more important than you’ve probably been told; why Christians make images, and how this visual language developed.
From Foundations more doors will take you deeper.
Become a member
The Sacred Images Project is becoming a permanent reference library for the history, theology and practice of sacred art.
Free subscribers receive regular public essays, news and updates.
Members receive:
Weekly subscriber-only essays and in-depth series.
Full access to the Reading Rooms as they continue to expand.
Downloadable resources, high-resolution images, shop discounts and other member extras.
Members’ discussions in the dedicated Chat, additional printable materials and videos as they are released.
Membership in the Ars Sacra Association and all future members’ benefits on the new website (in development).
Free – Public articles and updates and Notes on the Substack platform.
Annual Member – US$75/year – Full access to all member benefits.
Patron – US$125/year – For those who wish to provide additional support for the work.
If you’d prefer to set up a monthly donation in an amount of your choice, or make a one-off donation to the work, you can do that at the studio blog here:
If you set up a recurring monthly donation above $9/month, I will manually add you to the complimentary subscription list here for a year, which means you’ll have all the benefits of a paid subscription.
Romanesque Figural Art
I have a great friend who is an expert in medieval sacred art who’s been helping me for some years, and when I was learning about this he was always ready to answer my texts: “Hey, is this Romanesque?” Eventually I condensed our discussions and now I can tell at a glance. Here’s a list of some of the attributes of the style so you can too. Just look at each image and think about how the style in its totality works.
Monumentality
Figures are often large, rigid and frontal, designed to dominate space and signal importance, especially in tympana, bas reliefs, apse domes or vaulted ceilings.
Stylisation and abstraction
Facial features are schematised and symbolic and not always in conformity with natural proportions: huge, often staring, almond-shaped eyes, long noses, narrow mouths and symmetrical structures dominate. These are symbols of transfigured eternal humanity.
Hieratic frontality
Unlike the standard of Byzantine art, where the face and figure are usually turned very slightly to one side, inviting a sense of intimacy, many Romanesque figures, especially Christ and the Virgin, face directly outward with a commanding, symmetrical gaze. Rather than the contemplative intimacy of Byzantine panel icons, the goal is to inspire a sense of awe at the majesty of Christ.
Geometric structure
Forms are often based on simplified geometry: lines and swirls represent drapery, ovals, circles and triangles make up faces. This reinforces clarity and is symbolic of divine order.
Strong contour lines
Outlines are heavy and defining, especially in frescoes and manuscripts. They separate and stabilise forms in complex visual compositions based on an x/y axis, vertical or horizontal, rather than indicating perspectival, 3-dimensional depth.
Lack of individualisation
Faces rarely show individual identity (as in a portrait) or emotional variation. Their sameness conveys the idea of a shared, sanctified human nature, glorified and heavenly with subjective identity less important. Individuals are beginning to be identified by hagiographic symbols, rather than printed titles as in the Byzantine, though the latter is still present.
Hierarchical scaling
Important figures (Christ, Mary, prophets) are rendered much larger than surrounding ones, regardless of spatial logic, emphasising spiritual status over realism.
Expressiveness through gesture instead of facial expression
As with Byzantine art, Romanesque made use of standardised gestures to indicate particular emotional expressions. When emotion or drama is needed, it’s conveyed through body posture, hand gestures, and rhythmic drapery instead of facial expression.
Brilliant, saturated colour
Colours are flat - with little or no attempt to show rounded forms with shadow or highlights - and highly saturated, bright reds, blues, greens, yellows, and plenty of gold leaf. In manuscripts, the palette we see today is extraordinarily brilliant and jewel-like, and since the pages were not exposed to the corrosive effects of air and sunlight.
Though mostly lost, stone sculpture was originally painted in vibrant colours as well.
Read more about the coming of Otto and the solidifying of the western Christian empire, here:
Feudalism + Monasticism = a true western transnational style
Starting at the end of the 10th century at the time of the rise of the Ottonians, the combination of feudalism and monasticism created a measure of social and economic stability that allowed Romanesque art to flourish. Feudalism, that anchored everyone, high and low, in a network of personal, highly accountable mutual obligation, subject to the law. This provided a framework of land-based, that is, location-based, stability that created space for upheaval-averse monasticism to flourish. Monks in turn offered historical continuity, increased literacy and spiritual authority.
Together, these two forces shaped a society where sacred space became the most permanent and prestigious form of public art. Lords gave land and protection; monks gave prayer and learning and created space for vast technological advancements. The result was a world in which building a stone church was socially, economically and technically possible and considered the highest expression of both piety and power. It is from this union that the highly stylised, symbolic and monumental Romanesque style became the visual language of western, Latin Christendom itself.
The Romanesque style would not have emerged without the groundwork laid by the Carolingian and Ottonian empires, particularly with Charlemagne’s and Otto’s dedication to trans-national unity, gathering scholars and learned men to the imperial schools, founding monasteries that would go on to create the great European universities. These rulers re-established Western Europe as a coherent cultural, intellectual and religious sphere, unified by law and a trans-national common language (Latin) and with its own liturgical, architectural and artistic traditions, an identity, distinct from the Byzantine of Constantinople.
Read more about the early beginnings of the divide between pope and emperor, west and east, here:
The pope’s coronation of Charles, king of the Franks, as “Emperor of the Romans” in 800, when the Byzantine Empire was weakened from internal strife and external threats, was a symbolic break - and a bold statement of the pope’s independent authority - from the entire Eastern imperial model. It set in motion a renewed interest in Latin Christian learning, Benedictine monasticism and monumental church-building. The Ottonians later deepened and solidified this movement, embedding monastic reform and imperial patronage into the political and spiritual and artistic life of the Franco-Germanic West.
As the era progressed, feudalism grew into its peak of power, and emperors, kings and lords expressed their duties to God in the endowments of monasteries and churches as well as the building of castles. Romanesque style spread from Italy to over the Alps and all the way to England with William the Norman, from the pilgrimage roads of Spain to the forests of Saxony, even touching the coasts of Scandinavia.
The eschatological, the mystical and the fantastic
The subject matter of Romanesque art, nearly all created for liturgical settings, reflects the symbolic and mystical orientation of monastic Christianity. The most common subjects include the Last Judgment and Christ in Majesty (often together in a tympanum) that shows Christ as king of the universe, seated on a rainbow throne surrounded by the heavenly hosts of angels, saints and Apostles. Stylised angels, fantastic beasts often intertwined in ways that defy nature and gravity, and symbolic creatures from the Bible’s visionaries inhabit narrative capitals and manuscript margins.
These images were meant to confront the viewer with immutable cosmic truths: divine justice; either eternal punishment for sin or eternal glory. It focuses on spiritual warfare and the hidden realities of the heavenly order. Even when placed at eye level, they were not illustrations of people or events to contemplate so much as signs to interpret, an integrated aspect of the sacramental atmosphere of the Romanesque church, where the visible and invisible worlds met.
Yet for all its theological depth, Romanesque art was far removed in both style and intention from the contemplative, interiorised world of Byzantine iconography. Where the Byzantine icon invites the viewer into a direct encounter with divine presence, Romanesque imagery is more narrative and dramatic, bu above all stylistically symbolic.
What remains so compelling about these strange faces and twisting figures is that they are doing something we rarely expect from sacred art today. They do not mirror us and they do not offer comfort or familiarity. Instead, they present us with a vision shaped by a radically different sense of reality, in which the eternal breaks through the visible, in symbol, scale, and abstraction.
Great piece. I was unaware that this style has a name and that there was a methodology behind it. How you explained it made perfect sense. For the longest time I thought that the artists lacked technique for realism. I see its purpose now.
Excellent as always, Hilary, and I do agree with Mark Lajoie. But, I’m somewhat uneasy, because I sense a pop quiz coming up. . . .